As computer systems and network access become increasingly pervasive, computer interaction is shifting away from traditional workstation models. This shift brings a host of changes not only to interface design, but to the broad range of applications for computing and the social impacts of pervasive computers. Computer interactions are increasingly through networked applications, they are frequent and regular throughout the day. Computers are masquerading as an increasing variety of personal accessories, most notably watches. The common thread connecting all of these advances is the decreasing presence of the computer itself. Hardware devices are hidden, interfaces are integrated into existing accessories, and user interaction models de-emphasize the computer. This trend extends into software graphical interfaces, which hide extraneous controls and cut visual clutter to emphasize their content; for example, Apple's FaceTime has auxiliary controls (switch camera, mute, end call) which automatically hide themselves, leaving the interface like a portal into the other caller's world. This trend represents a paradigm shift away from the workstation model of computing, where the user manipulates a tool to complete a task, and towards an integrated model of computing, where the user subconsciously and seamlessly draws on computer assistance and resources to supplement their conscious task completion; the user manipulates the subject of the task itself, with minimal intermediary controls. We can conceptualize this trend as away from opaque computing (the abacus being a prime example) towards transparent computing (such as the always-listening voice assistant Siri). The furthest extent of transparent computing yet reached may be "smart" eyewear which superimposes a minimal computer interface over the wearer's visual field (Google Glass being the most simple, Microsoft HoloLens being the most sophisticated). This end of the spectrum is open, but speculation points towards an unobtrusive fully integrated computer and network system interfaced at a low level in the nervous system. What are the individual and social impacts of increasing computing transparency?

The most significant trends shaping the rise of pervasive computing are sophistication, size, cost/accessibility, and prevalence. These are all covered in the history. Their result, however, is observable in their ever increasing abstraction, and a trend toward direct manipulation outlined below.

Direct Manipulation

As computers have progressed, a common trend in interaction models has been an increase in their "directness". That is, interactions with computer interfaces, beginning in the era of the GUI and continuing today, have decreased the number of conceptual abstraction layers between an interaction and its observed effects. Text-based interfaces simplified computer programming by bypassing the need to toggle physical switches to change values and program code. The GUI made many operations point-and-click, drag-and-drop, which enabled the development of WYSIWYG content creation models. Touchscreens cut out the mouse middleman, enabling users to manipulate onscreen objects with their fingers.

Now, augmented reality is beginning to cut out the screen middleman, allowing digital representations to appear anywhere and be manipulated without even having to touch the screen they used to hide behind. Of course, this abstract ideal presents clear problems for developing interaction models: if there is nothing to touch, how do you touch it?